Preparation & Training Methods

Assessing Fitness Data

• Quantitative data is numerical/factual (e.g. distance covered in Cooper's 12-minute run, compared against standardised tables); qualitative data is descriptive and based on feelings or opinions (e.g. the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale, a 6-20 scale used to record how hard a performer feels they are working)
• Objective data is fact-based and measurable, typical of maximal tests taken to exhaustion (e.g. the Wingate test for anaerobic power, or the multi-stage fitness/bleep test for stamina)
• Subjective data is based on opinion, estimation or prediction, typical of sub-maximal tests (e.g. the Harvard step test), which can be less accurate as a result

Validity and Reliability of Fitness Testing

• Validity asks whether a test actually measures what it claims to, and whether it is sport-specific – e.g. the multi-stage fitness test is valid for a running-based games player but less valid for a swimmer or cyclist whose movement patterns differ
• Reliability refers to whether a test produces consistent results if repeated. Reliability is improved by using experienced testers, standardised equipment, a consistent test sequence/procedure, and repeating tests to reduce human error

The Warm-Up

A warm-up should always precede a training session and typically has three stages: (1) cardiovascular activity such as light jogging, (2) stretching/flexibility work targeting the muscles and joints to be used, and (3) rehearsal of the specific movement patterns required in the activity (e.g. practising shooting or dribbling).

• Static stretching holds a position without movement and can be active (the performer pushes the joint beyond its point of resistance themselves) or passive (an external force such as a partner, gravity or a wall assists the stretch)
• Ballistic stretching uses swinging/bouncing movements to force a joint further, and should only be used by performers with very high natural flexibility (e.g. gymnasts, dancers), due to injury risk
• Physiological effects of warming up – reduces injury risk by increasing muscle elasticity; adrenaline release raises heart rate and dilates capillaries, increasing oxygen delivery to muscles; rising muscle temperature helps oxygen dissociate from haemoglobin and speeds up enzyme activity, releasing energy faster; faster nerve impulse conduction improves alertness and reaction time; increased synovial fluid production improves joint efficiency; also allows rehearsal of activity-specific movement, psychological preparation/anxiety reduction, and improved blood supply to the heart

The Cool-Down

A cool-down uses light exercise straight after training or competition to keep the heart rate and blood flow elevated, helping flush oxygen through the muscles to remove and oxidise remaining lactic acid.

• Continuing light movement also keeps the skeletal muscle pump active, maintaining venous return and preventing blood pooling in the veins – pooling can otherwise cause dizziness, fainting or loss of consciousness
• A proper cool-down can also help limit DOMS (delayed onset of muscle soreness) – tender, painful muscles typically felt 24-48 hours after intense exercise, caused by structural damage to muscle fibres and surrounding connective tissue, most often from heavy eccentric contraction (e.g. in weight training)

Principles of Training: SPORR

• Specificity – training must match the demands of the performer's sport in terms of energy system, muscle fibre type, skills, movement patterns, and intensity/duration used
• Progressive overload – training difficulty is gradually increased over time (e.g. lifting progressively heavier weights) as fitness improves, to continue driving adaptation. Overloading too much too soon increases injury risk
• Reversibility (detraining) – fitness adaptations are gradually lost if training stops or is significantly reduced
• Recovery – rest days allow the body to adapt and repair; a commonly used pattern is training hard for three days followed by one rest day (a 3:1 ratio), though some elite performers prefer a single fixed rest day each week

Principles of Training: FITT

• Frequency – how often training sessions take place
• Intensity – how hard the performer trains
• Time – the duration of training, which should be gradually increased
• Type – the kind of training used; varying the type (e.g. continuous, circuit, fartlek training to build stamina) helps maintain motivation, but the type chosen must stay relevant to the sport (e.g. a games player should train using running rather than cycling)

Periodisation: Macrocycle, Mesocycle and Microcycle

Periodisation is the process of dividing a training year into planned blocks/cycles, allowing performance to be improved while managing injury risk.

• Macrocycle – the longest cycle, covering a long-term goal such as a season or a four-year Olympic build-up. It is made up of three periods: the preparation period (general conditioning, building fitness – e.g. football pre-season in June/July), the competition period (refining skills/technique while maintaining fitness – e.g. the football season itself), and the transition period (rest and recovery to allow physical and mental recharge before the next cycle begins)
• Mesocycle – a shorter block, typically 4-12 weeks, focused on a specific fitness component (e.g. a sprinter focusing on power/speed/reaction time; an endurance athlete focusing on strength endurance and cardiorespiratory endurance)
• Microcycle – the shortest cycle, describing a single week (or few days) of training that repeats throughout a mesocycle, including scheduled rest days

Tapering, Peaking and Double Periodisation

• Tapering is a planned reduction in training volume in the days before a major competition, allowing training-induced fatigue to be removed
• Peaking is the coach's careful planning and organisation of training so a performer reaches their best physical and mental condition for a specific competition – timed so fatigue has cleared but reversibility/detraining hasn't yet set in
• Double periodisation is used when a performer needs to peak more than once in a year (e.g. a cross-country athlete peaking in winter and again on the track in summer), requiring the training year to be split into two periodised cycles

Continuous Training

Continuous training involves sustained, low-intensity exercise (e.g. jogging, swimming, cycling) performed for a long duration without rest intervals.

• It develops aerobic power/stamina by placing consistent stress on the aerobic energy system, improving the cardiovascular and respiratory systems' ability to take up, transport and use oxygen

Fartlek Training

Fartlek training ('speed-play', from Swedish) varies the pace of continuous exercise, combining periods of low intensity with bursts of high intensity.

• This stresses both the aerobic system (through its continuous nature) and the anaerobic system (through the high-intensity bursts), improving both stamina and recovery. Sessions typically last around 40 minutes and can vary terrain (e.g. uphill/downhill sections) as well as pace
• Particularly suited to games players, whose sports demand constantly changing intensities requiring both aerobic and anaerobic energy production

Interval Training

Interval training alternates periods of high-intensity work with recovery periods, and is mainly used to improve anaerobic power.

• Key variables that must be planned: duration of each work interval, intensity/speed of the work interval, duration of each recovery period, and the number of work/recovery intervals – this versatility allows it to be adapted to a wide range of anaerobic training needs

Circuit Training

Circuit training involves performing a sequence of exercises at different 'stations' (e.g. arm exercises like press-ups, leg exercises like squats, trunk exercises like sit-ups, and cardiovascular stations like running), usually using the performer's own body weight as resistance.

• Planning a circuit requires decisions on the number/variety of stations, repetitions or time spent at each, rest interval length, and available time, space, equipment and participant fitness level
• Station order should avoid working the same body part on consecutive stations, allowing partial recovery. Circuits are flexible and can be adapted to target almost any component of fitness, though are most commonly used for general conditioning

Weight Training

Weight training develops muscular strength (and, depending on programme design, power or muscular endurance) using free weights or fixed resistance machines, structured around sets and repetitions.

• A repetition is one completion of an exercise; a set is a group of repetitions performed consecutively. 1 rep max (1RM) is the maximum weight a performer can lift for a single repetition, and training loads are typically planned as a percentage of it
• For maximum strength: low repetitions at high load (e.g. 4-5 sets of 2-6 reps at 80-100% of 1RM). For muscular endurance: higher repetitions at lower load (e.g. 3 sets of 10 reps at around 50% of 1RM)
• Exercise selection should reflect the muscle groups (agonists and antagonists) used in the sport, in line with the specificity principle – common categories include shoulders/arms (e.g. bench press), trunk/back (e.g. sit-ups), legs (e.g. squats) and whole-body lifts (e.g. power clean, deadlift)

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) is an advanced form of passive stretching, and is considered one of the most effective methods for increasing range of movement.

• The target muscle is isometrically contracted for at least ten seconds, then relaxed and stretched further (usually with a partner or another external force assisting), typically going beyond the original range of movement on the second stretch