The Sociology of Sport
Sociology is the study of how human behaviour is shaped and regulated within a society.
It examines two main areas: how people interact and depend on one another within groups, and how behaviour comes to be controlled and regulated, for example through family, friends, schools and other institutions.
The sociology of sport applies these ideas specifically to the relationship between sport and society, looking at how social processes such as socialisation can create or worsen inequalities for particular groups, e.g. women, disabled people and ethnic minority groups.
Socialisation: Primary and Secondary
Socialisation is a lifelong process through which a person learns and takes on the norms, values, attitudes and expected roles of the society or group they belong to.
Primary socialisation happens during early childhood, mainly within the immediate family (parents, siblings). Close, everyday contact with family members strongly shapes early habits, including introducing children to physical activity and play, and can be a key influence on lifelong sporting participation.
Secondary socialisation happens later, typically during the teenage years, once influence widens beyond the immediate family to include friends, school and wider social groups. Schools in particular play a major role in secondary socialisation by structuring young people's exposure to sport and PE.
Social Control and Social Change
Social control refers to the way a society regulates people's thoughts, feelings, appearance and behaviour, keeping them in line with accepted norms – enforced both informally (family, friends) and formally (institutions such as schools, religious or government bodies).
Sport can act as a tool of social control: taking part in organised, rule-governed activity can limit opportunities for people to become involved in antisocial behaviour, and participation tends to be lower among groups with less access to organised, monitored activity.
Social change describes an alteration in the established order of society. Sporting campaigns and initiatives can be deliberately used to promote positive social change, e.g. increasing participation among a specific under-represented group.
Change is often difficult to achieve quickly, because deep-rooted differences in social influence and access between groups can continue to restrict who becomes involved, even once a campaign is under way.
Causes of Social Inequality in Sport
Social inequality exists where resources, opportunities and status within a society are unevenly shared out among different social groups.
In sport, inequality can be linked both to a person's economic position (income and wealth) and to socially constructed differences based on characteristics such as gender, ethnicity or disability.
Common causes of inequality in participation can be remembered using MR MC:
- Money – the cost of equipment, membership and travel can restrict participation
- Role models – a lack of visible, relatable role models to aspire to
- Myths – harmful stereotypes about the ability of certain groups, e.g. based on ethnicity, gender or disability
- Confidence – low self-esteem or lack of confidence discouraging people from taking part
These barriers particularly affect groups including women, disabled people, ethnic minority groups, and those from lower-income or unemployed households.
Social Structures and Stratification
A society's structure is shaped by a range of social factors that can positively or negatively affect an individual's or group's life chances.
Social stratification is a form of inequality in which a society is divided into different layers or classes based on a shared characteristic, most commonly wealth or status.
Sport participation has historically reflected this stratification: access to facilities and equipment has traditionally favoured wealthier groups, while lower-income groups have had more limited access.
In modern society, taking part in sport can act as a way of gaining status and a sense of identity within a social group, though this status is usually temporary and specific to the sporting context, fading once the activity has ended.
Groups that traditionally hold power and wealth continue to have disproportionate influence and visibility across sport, while other groups remain under-represented in participation, coaching and leadership roles.
Social class continues to be linked to differences in participation: children from lower-income households tend to have poorer access to sport due to the cost of equipment, coaching and travel, and schools in less affluent areas may have more limited facilities than fee-paying schools.
Social Action Theory and Related Terms
Social action theory views society and behaviour, including participation in sport, as something actively produced through the relationships and interactions between people, rather than something fixed. Individuals interpret situations and respond to one another, and this can gradually drive wider social change.
- Progression – gradual movement towards a more developed or advanced state, e.g. a steady rise in participation for an under-represented group over time
- Equal opportunities – giving everyone the same chance to take part in an activity, regardless of characteristics such as race, sex, religion or mental/physical ability
- Prejudice – an unfair opinion or attitude formed about a person or group, often based on limited or inaccurate information rather than direct experience
- Discrimination – the unfair treatment of a person or group, usually resulting from prejudice, where they are treated differently or excluded because of a particular characteristic
- Stereotyping – applying a fixed, oversimplified assumption to every member of a group, which can unfairly limit how people from that group are viewed or treated in sport
Discrimination can be overt (obvious and visible, e.g. open racist abuse of a player) or covert (hidden or indirect, e.g. quietly overlooking someone for a leadership role because of their background).
Benefits of Increasing Participation
Encouraging more people to take part in sport and physical activity brings advantages for both individuals and wider society.
- Health: improved fitness, weight management, lower blood pressure and reduced stress for individuals; reduced pressure on health services and lower obesity-related illness for society
- Social: stronger friendships and social skills from being part of a team or club for individuals; better community integration and morale for society
- Crime: a constructive use of free time, which is associated with reduced criminal activity and lower resulting costs to society
- Employment: improved productivity and lower staff absenteeism for employers; a more active, healthier workforce overall
- Economic: increased spending on sport-related goods, services and jobs, boosting local and national income
At a physiological level, regular activity also improves components of fitness such as cardiovascular fitness, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, agility, balance, coordination, speed, power and reaction time, alongside reduced risk of conditions such as heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis and some cancers.
Improved mood and reduced stress are partly explained by the release of chemicals such as serotonin and endorphins during exercise, which can also improve sleep, concentration and social relationships.
Barriers to Participation and Possible Solutions
A number of barriers commonly prevent people from taking part in sport and physical activity regularly, which can be remembered using the acronym TIME:
- Time – competing demands from work, study or family commitments
- Income – the cost of equipment, membership and travel
- Motivation – a lack of confidence or drive to get started
- Education – limited knowledge, skill or awareness of how to get involved
Practical solutions include building activity into an existing daily routine (e.g. walking or cycling to work/school); exercising with friends or family for motivation and support; offering low-cost or free sessions where facility access is limited; and selecting simple activities that require minimal skill, cost or equipment.
Groups particularly affected by these barriers, and specifically targeted for increased participation, include women, disabled people, and people from minority ethnic groups.
Barriers Facing Disabled People
Participation rates in sport among disabled people are lower than the general population, and recent data has shown a decline in the number of disabled people taking part in regular weekly exercise.
Common barriers include negative self-image and low confidence; lower income, making membership and transport costs harder to afford; poor accessibility of facilities; a lack of organised, adapted programmes and specialist coaches; low media coverage and few relatable role models; and harmful myths or stereotypes about a disabled person's ability to take part.
Discrimination can be overt (openly excluding a disabled person from taking part) or covert (quietly failing to adapt coaching or provision to include them).
Participation can be integrated – disabled and non-disabled people taking part together – or segregated – disabled people competing separately among themselves, e.g. the Paralympics.
Solutions include creating opportunities for elite success (e.g. the Paralympics); investing in accessible facilities, transport and assistive technology (e.g. sport-specific wheelchairs, prosthetics); increasing media coverage and role models; training specialist coaches; designing inclusive, sport-specific activities; and educating the public to break down myths and stereotypes.
Barriers Facing Ethnic Minority Groups
Racism – the unfair or hostile treatment of a person based on their skin colour, language or cultural background – is illegal in Britain.
Common barriers for ethnic minority groups include fear of racist abuse or rejection; low self-esteem; a lack of visible role models and coaches from the same background; cultural or religious observances that can restrict participation in certain settings; language barriers; and stereotyping or discrimination in selection, coaching and employment.
Stacking describes the disproportionate concentration of ethnic minority players in certain playing positions, based on stereotypical assumptions about their physical rather than decision-making abilities.
Channelling describes ethnic minority groups being steered towards or away from particular sports based on assumptions about their suitability.
Research shows some ethnic minority communities have lower-than-average participation rates in physical activity, and are significantly under-represented in coaching, management and administrative roles compared with playing roles.
Solutions include training more coaches, officials and teachers from ethnic minority backgrounds; offering culturally sensitive sessions where needed; publicising and punishing racist abuse; ensuring PE programmes reflect a range of cultural practices; and running campaigns to challenge racism directly. Some governing bodies have also introduced policies requiring minority ethnic candidates to be interviewed for certain coaching vacancies, to improve representation in leadership roles.
Barriers Facing Women
Women's participation in sport remains lower than men's, and can be affected by a combination of stereotyping and discrimination.
Barriers can be remembered using the acronym TRIPS:
- Time – often reduced by childcare or domestic responsibilities
- Role models – a lack of visible, relatable women in sport
- Income – lower disposable income limiting access
- PE programmes – more limited choice and opportunity for girls at school
- Sponsorship – far less funding and investment compared with men's sport
Additional factors include historically low media coverage of women's sport, fewer available leagues and clubs, and stereotypical views about what is considered an appropriately 'feminine' sport, which can discourage participation in more traditionally 'masculine' sports.
Solutions include making school PE offer more equal choice for girls; legally enforcing equal treatment under sex discrimination law; increasing media coverage and promoting role models; offering flexible, sociable formats that fit around other commitments; improving access to childcare support; and increasing sponsorship and prize money for women's competitions. Campaigns such as Sport England's 'This Girl Can' have specifically targeted these barriers, alongside a gradual rise in participation and investment in women's sport over time.
Sport England's Partners in Increasing Participation
Sport England works with a range of local and national partners to increase participation and reduce inequality, with a stated mission of helping people build a lasting 'sporting habit for life'.
At a local level, this is delivered through County Sport Partnerships (CSPs) – networks of local organisations, including local authorities, health bodies, clubs and schools, that coordinate provision and target investment to meet specific local needs.
Key national partner organisations include:
- Activity Alliance – focused on increasing physical activity among disabled people
- Sporting Equals – works to increase participation among disadvantaged and black and minority ethnic (BME) communities
- Women in Sport – aims to get more women and girls active and challenge barriers to their participation
- StreetGames – supports low-cost, informal 'doorstep' sport in disadvantaged communities, close to where people live
Sport England has also run specific campaigns and funding schemes targeting under-represented groups, including 'This Girl Can' (women's participation), 'I Will If You Will' (a local pilot to increase women's activity), 'Places People Play' (facility investment, including for disabled people) and 'Get Equipped' (funding specialist disability sport equipment).