Arousal

Arousal and Drive Theory

Arousal is a state of activation and readiness to perform, ranging on a continuum from very low (sleep-like) to very high (extreme excitement). It can be increased by factors such as the importance of a competition, being watched by an audience (especially experts), and frustration, such as playing badly or losing.

• Drive theory proposes that as arousal increases, performance increases in a proportional, linear way:

• Drive theory is linked to the dominant response – the response a performer believes to be correct. In experts, the dominant response is usually correct, so performance remains high even under high arousal. In beginners, the dominant response may be underdeveloped, so high arousal increases the risk of poor performance
• Task complexity also matters – complex tasks require more information processing and can suffer under high arousal, while simple tasks can still be performed well at high arousal levels

The Inverted-U Theory

The inverted-U theory shares drive theory's starting assumption that increasing arousal improves performance, but argues that performance only improves up to an optimal point, typically at moderate arousal – beyond this point, further arousal causes performance to decline. Both too little and too much arousal are equally damaging to performance.

• The optimal level of arousal is not fixed and varies according to several factors: experience – experts can perform well at higher arousal since their dominant response is more likely correct, while novices need lower arousal; personality – extroverts tend to perform better at higher arousal while introverts prefer lower arousal, linked to differences in baseline activation levels; and task type – gross, simple skills (e.g. rowing) can be performed well at high arousal, while fine, complex skills (e.g. a table tennis return) are better performed at lower arousal

Catastrophe Theory

Catastrophe theory is an adaptation of the inverted-U theory. It agrees that performance peaks at an optimal point of arousal, but argues that beyond this point performance does not gradually decline – instead it drops suddenly and dramatically.

• This sudden slump is caused by a combination of high somatic anxiety (physiological symptoms, e.g. muscle tension and raised heart rate) and high cognitive anxiety (psychological symptoms, e.g. loss of concentration and worry)
• Recovery from the slump is possible if the initial anxiety is mild and the performer has time to regain control; otherwise, panic can cause arousal to rise further, worsening the decline in performance

The Zone of Optimal Functioning and Peak Flow

The zone of optimal functioning, developed by psychologist Hanin, adapts the inverted-U theory further by suggesting that rather than one single optimal point of arousal, each performer has an individual 'zone' – a bandwidth of arousal within which they perform best.

• This zone can sit at low, moderate or high arousal depending on the individual, and can be found using techniques such as mental practice, relaxation, visualisation and positive self-talk
• Peak flow is the ultimate intrinsic experience achievable within the zone, characterised by effortless movement, total focus, supreme confidence and a feeling of complete control – it is promoted by a positive mental attitude, high confidence, relaxation and anxiety control
• Peak flow can be disrupted by factors such as poor mental preparation, environmental pressures (e.g. crowd noise or refereeing decisions), or the effects of injury or fatigue during performance