Types and Purposes of Feedback
Feedback is information received during or after a performance that is used to correct errors and improve future attempts. Using the right type of feedback, matched to the performer's needs, is essential for effective improvement.
- Positive feedback – informs the performer that their performance was good, encouraging and motivating them to continue performing the skill in the same way
- Negative feedback – informs the performer that an error has occurred; although it can feel unwelcome, it is necessary so that mistakes are identified and eliminated, particularly for more experienced performers
- Extrinsic feedback – feedback given to the performer from an outside source, such as a coach, teammate, video or spectators; can be used to reinforce correct technique or to highlight aspects the performer cannot detect themselves
- Intrinsic feedback – feedback that comes from within the performer themselves, using their own sense of movement (kinaesthesis) and internal feel for whether an action felt correct
- Knowledge of results – feedback about the outcome of an action, e.g. whether a shot scored or missed; available immediately at the end of an attempt
- Knowledge of performance – more detailed feedback concerning the technique and quality of the movement itself, rather than just the outcome, and is used to help the performer produce a better performance next time
A useful way to remember these five types is the mnemonic "Perhaps Not Every Person Is Realistic": Positive, Negative, Extrinsic, Performance (knowledge of), Intrinsic, Results (knowledge of).
Feedback and the Stages of Learning
The type of feedback that is most effective changes as a performer moves through the stages of learning.
- At the cognitive stage, a novice benefits most from extrinsic feedback combined with positive encouragement, since they lack the experience to accurately judge their own performance. Frequent, simple advice on both technique and outcome helps build confidence and correct early errors
- At the associative stage, feedback can become more detailed as the performer starts to develop the ability to use some of their own intrinsic feedback alongside a coach's extrinsic feedback, allowing steady progress and refinement of technique
- At the autonomous stage, the performer relies mainly on intrinsic feedback and their own kinaesthetic sense to make fine adjustments, using this to self-correct and maintain a high level of control over their performance
Methods of Guidance
Alongside feedback, coaches can use four main methods of guidance to help a performer learn and improve a skill, each offering different levels of technical detail and physical support.
- Visual guidance – a demonstration of the skill that gives the performer a mental image to copy, delivered live by a coach or peer, or through video, images or diagrams. It is highly effective for beginners and works best when performed accurately, at the correct speed, and repeated so the performer can build a clear picture of what is required – inaccurate or overly complex demonstrations can confuse the learner
- Verbal guidance – spoken explanation of the task, often used together with visual guidance to draw attention to specific points of technique. It is particularly useful for more advanced performers who can already picture the skill and need detailed or tactical advice, but too much information can overload and confuse the performer, and language that is too technical may not be understood by a beginner
- Manual guidance – physical support given by the coach to help the performer complete a movement, such as holding a gymnast during a new skill. It builds confidence and can help remove the fear of dangerous or difficult tasks, but if used for too long it can create over-reliance, preventing the performer from developing the ability to perform the skill unaided, and it can also become physically intrusive
- Mechanical guidance – the use of an artificial aid to support performance, such as a swimming armband or a trampoline harness. It builds confidence and can reduce the danger of a task, allowing an early feel for the skill, but similar to manual guidance it risks over-reliance and can reduce a performer's motivation to complete the task independently