Principles & Theories of Learning

The Stages of Learning

As a performer learns a new skill, they progress through three stages, moving from beginner towards expert level. Each stage has distinct features a coach should be able to recognise.

• Cognitive stage – the first stage, used by a novice. The performer must think carefully about what they are doing, relying heavily on demonstrations and instructions from a coach. Movements are often slow, uncoordinated and inconsistent, with frequent, obvious errors. Trial and error is used to work out what actions are needed, and the performer benefits from detailed feedback, delivered as soon as possible after the attempt
• Associative stage – the middle, and usually longest, stage of learning. The performer has grasped the basic pattern of the skill and moves on to practising it, refining technique and becoming more consistent. Errors are fewer and less major, and the performer starts to detect and correct some of their own mistakes, though feedback from a coach is still valuable
• Autonomous stage – the final stage, reached after extended practice. The skill has become habitual and can be performed with little conscious thought, freeing the performer's attention to focus on other aspects of performance, such as tactics or opponents. Movements are fluent, efficient and consistent, and the performer can largely self-correct using their own internal feedback

Learning is a permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice, while performance is a temporary occurrence that can vary because of external and internal influences such as anxiety or nerves – this distinction matters because a single poor performance does not necessarily mean learning has not taken place.

Learning Plateaus

A learning plateau is a period during learning where a performer's improvement stalls and their performance does not appear to get any better, despite continued practice. This can be shown visually using a learning curve, a graph plotting performance/success rate against time or number of attempts.

A typical learning curve for a closed skill practised repeatedly over time tends to show four stages: an initial period of slow improvement while the performer is new to the task and still relying on trial and error; a period of rapid improvement as the basic pattern is grasped and motivation is high; a plateau where the rate of improvement flattens out; and, in some cases, a final stage where performance actually declines – known as drive reduction, where the drive to succeed falls once the target has already been achieved or the challenge feels lost.

Several factors can cause a plateau, which can be remembered with the mnemonic "Many Bees Can Look Towards Flowers":

• Motivation – a lack of intrinsic or extrinsic rewards can cause the performer to lose drive and interest in the task
• Boredom – repeating the same closed-skill drills can become monotonous
• Coaching – issuing incorrect instructions, or using practice methods that are not suited to the performer, can mean the skill is not being learned correctly
• Limit of ability – the performer may simply have reached the full extent of their current physical or technical ability
• Targets too low – goals that are not challenging enough fail to push the performer to progress further
• Fatigue – sustained periods of activity, especially over an extended time, cause the muscles to tire, which can prevent further gains and even cause performance to worsen

Solutions to overcome a plateau include extending or varying the task to provide a fresh challenge, setting new and more suitable targets, seeking advice from a different coach, adding variety to reduce boredom, explaining the concept of the plateau to the performer so they do not take it personally, allowing rest to combat fatigue, and giving feedback that specifically targets performance and motivation.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a behaviourist theory, based on the work of psychologist B.F. Skinner, that explains how actions can be linked to stimuli. It works on the principle that a coach can manipulate a performer's environment so that correct actions are rewarded and are therefore more likely to be repeated.

The theory is based on trial-and-error learning, in which the coach manipulates the performer's environment and shapes their behaviour through the use of reinforcement. This creates a link between a stimulus and the response it produces, known as the stimulus-response (S-R) bond – for example, in badminton, associating the flight of an incoming shuttlecock (stimulus) with the correct type of shot (response).

If a response is followed by a satisfying outcome, known as a satisfier, the S-R bond is strengthened and the action is more likely to be repeated. If the outcome is unpleasant, known as an annoyer, the bond is weakened and the performer is less likely to repeat that action.

• Positive reinforcement – giving a pleasant stimulus, such as praise, after a correct response, to increase the likelihood it will be repeated
• Negative reinforcement – removing an unpleasant stimulus once the correct action is performed, for example a coach stopping criticism once a technique improves; this also increases the likelihood of the correct response being repeated
• Punishment – applying an unpleasant stimulus, such as a penalty or sanction, to reduce the chance that an incorrect action will be repeated

Operant conditioning can be applied by a coach using whole or whole-part-whole practice to isolate key aspects of a skill for reinforcement, and mental practice can also be used to rehearse the correct response before physically attempting it.

Observational Learning (Bandura)

Observational learning was researched by psychologist Albert Bandura, who suggested that both acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and copying the actions of others. A coach can use this to their advantage by using appropriate demonstrations and role models to ensure a skill is learned correctly, through four processes.

• Attention – making sure the performer is paying attention to the demonstration; the more attractive or relevant the demonstration is, such as a demonstration from a similarly-skilled or high-status performer, the more likely it is to be copied accurately
• Retention – the performer must be able to remember the important information from the demonstration and recall it later; breaking a demonstration down into smaller, clear parts helps this information be stored in the memory
• Motor production – the performer must have the physical and mental capability to actually reproduce the demonstrated action, which usually develops with continued practice over time
• Motivation – the performer needs a reason to want to copy the demonstration, such as the promise of a reward or reinforcement, so they are driven to attempt and repeat the observed action

For demonstrations to be effectively copied, they should be performed by a model of similar ability to the learner, be repeated, be visually and verbally clear, be consistent, and be relevant to the skill being learned.

Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

Social development theory, developed by Lev Vygotsky, proposes that interaction with other people plays a vital role in how children – and, by extension, performers – develop skills. In sport, skills can be learned from coaches, teachers and other more experienced individuals, referred to as a more knowledgeable other (MKO).

The coach or MKO does not just give direct advice, but also influences the learner by demonstrating values and actions the learner can adopt. When learning takes place through direct guidance, advice, feedback and knowledge given by the MKO from outside the learner, this is called inter-psychological learning. Once this external knowledge has been absorbed, further learning that takes place from within the learner themselves – analysing, thinking about and constructing actions based on what has already been learned – is called intra-psychological learning.

To construct new understanding, Vygotsky suggested that learners build on what they already know, working with more experienced others who can identify what is needed next to develop their skills.

Central to this theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) – an assessment of what a performer needs to learn next, based on three areas: what they can already do alone, what they can do with help, and what they cannot yet do. The coach or MKO uses this assessment to provide the right level of support to move the performer's ability forward step by step, for example helping a hockey player progress from dribbling a ball on the spot with support, to dribbling it independently around players and defenders.

Insight Learning (Gestaltist Theories)

Insight learning was proposed by a group of German psychologists known as the Gestaltists, who argued that meaningful learning takes place by using existing knowledge and understanding to work out a solution to a whole problem, rather than relying purely on trial and error.

This theory focuses on the performer's ability to think about the whole task and apply relevant existing knowledge to it, rather than focusing on isolated parts. When a player is presented with a problem, sporting knowledge already held is used to work out a suitable solution, and the performer must be aware of the options available to them before deciding on the best course of action – for example, a marathon runner drawing on tactical knowledge built through experience of pacing across previous long-distance races to decide when to accelerate in the closing stages of a race.

This approach is best suited to more experienced performers who already have the relevant knowledge and understanding to draw upon, and it encourages the performer to think for themselves and develop their own solutions, which can give a strong sense of satisfaction and intrinsic motivation once a problem is solved. Insight learning may also generate a specific role or plan for a performer within a team, based on the way they have learned to solve problems during play.